The Nation Newspaper

Tag: imbalance

  • Resolving air service deals imbalance

    Olisa Agbakoba Legal Maritime Unit Head Dr. Oluwole Akinyeye writes on the imbalance of Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements and how to resolve them.

    Bilateral Air Service Agreements are international trade agreements that permit the airlines of two countries to conduct air transport services between their respective territories. Nigeria has signed over 80 bilateral air service agreements with various countries, which have largely failed to benefit the country. This position is largely against the principle that multiple benefits are to be derived from such international commercial arrangements, as confirmed in Part 8 of the Nigerian Civil Aviation Policy, 2013, which provides that air service agreements will be premised upon economic considerations and expectations.

    In ThisDay’s publication on November 19, 2018, it was reported that statistics from the International Air Transport Association revealed that international airlines sold tickets worth $1.4billion to travellers in 2017, while tickets worth $800 million were sold in the first six months of last year. Unfortunately, while foreign air carriers continue to make monumental gains from operating flights to and from Nigeria under the bilateral air service agreements, Nigeria’s domestic air carriers continue to remain shortchanged under the agreements, as their inability to reciprocate these flights has been reported to cost the country over $3billion yearly.

    Suffice to say that the present bilateral air service agreements signed by Nigeria with other countries reflectan imbalance in these agreements. This position is totally unacceptable, considering that aviation occupies a strategic role as an integral means of generating revenue in any economy.

    Notably, aviation stakeholders have identified that the unfair imbalance created under Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements can largely be attributed to an absence of government policy protecting the Nigerian airlines. Given this position, it becomes crucial to create a government policy to resolve the imbalance. It is these circumstances that warrant the consideration of Nigeria’s imbalanced bilateral air service agreements and the ramifications of enacting the proposed ‘Fly Nigeria Act’, which  stakeholders have clamoured for, as a viable solution to resolving the imbalance.

    Problems creating imbalance

    The imbalance of Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements is the result of certain problems that are primarily responsible for the inability of Nigeria to reciprocate its agreements with other countries and to maximise the opportunities flowing from such agreements. The problems are identified below.

     Demise of national carrier

    Previously, the Nigeria Airways was the national carrier that executed Nigeria’s part of its bilateral air service agreements; however, its regrettable demise meant that inevitable difficulties would be presented to Nigeria’s efforts to continue to fulfill its own end of the agreements. It is also recalled that the defunct Nigeria Airways was replaced by Air Nigeria (originally Virgin Nigeria), however, it is quite unfortunate that the latter suffered the same fate of the former. The inevitable result is that there is no existing national carrier that would position Nigeria to reciprocate its bilateral air service agreements with other countries. This constitutes an unacceptable situation considering that a country’s national air carrier boosts that country’s image and tourism.  Arguably, the inexistence of a national carrier is clearly an indictment on the past and current governments for their failure to sustain the continued existence and operation of the defunct national carriers.

     Incapacity of local private airlines

    In the wake of the demise of the national carriers, privately owned airlines have tried to successfully operate the international routes, however, they havebeen incapacitated through formidable difficulties in the nature of financial constraints.

    Regarding these financial challenges, one need not look any further than Arik Air’s operation of the Abuja-London route that appeared to have encountered the problematic issue of securing landing slots in UK airports, which was due to the significant costs in getting the slots.In a chat by a Former Director in Medview Airline, Mr. Lukeman Animaseun, with This Day, published on July 13, 2018, he stated that the costs of securing landing slots were too high and prohibitive, which would affect the capacity of any local private airline in operating the international routes.

    In other words, the same problem experienced by Arik Air would be encountered by any other private airline that sought to operate the international routes. He further noted that while the government had initially made efforts to intervene in respect of the difficulties experienced by Arik Air with the UK airport authorities, this intervention was, however, not sustained. It was his opinion that the difficulties experienced by Arik Air would not have been so, if it had the status of a national carrier,as the government would definitely retaliate against any hostile measures or actions of the UK airport authorities.

    However, it must be stated that while it is true that the government would certainly protect the interest of its national carrier, it is also true that the government owes the same obligation to any domestic private airline that operates the international routes. This is in light of the position that under most of Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements with other countries, there are provisions granting the parties the right to designate the air carrier(s)that will be authorised to operate the agreed routes. Against this backdrop, if in the absence of a national carrier, a domestic private airline has been authorised as the air carrier to operate an agreed route, the government owes that designated carrier a duty to advance and protect its interests. As a result, the failure of the government to adequately protect the interest of private air carriers operating international routes reflects a lack of political will to do so.

    Aviation cabotage policy

    The concept of cabotage originated from the shipping sector and refers to the carriage of goods or passengers from one place to another place within the same country, by a transport service provider from a foreign country. The practice of the concept can, however, be considered inimical to any country where it is permitted, as the economic growth and development of that country’s maritime sector could be inhibited. As a result, it is not surprising that an appreciable number of countries have enacted cabotage laws restricting the participation of foreigners in local shipping. For instance, Nigeria has its cabotage restriction law in the form of the Coastal and Inland Shipping (Cabotage) Act, 2003.

    While cabotage was originally associated with the shipping sector, its application has been extended to the aviation sector.As a result, Article 7 of the Chicago Convention 1944 permits a State to refuse foreign airlines the right to operate domestic flights in its territory. It is noteworthy that Nigeria has categorically forbidden cabotage in its bilateral air service agreements.

    However, it appears that simply prohibiting cabotage is inadequate in dealing with the imbalance arising from Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements, which iscreated by the challenges posed to the implementation of the agreements, as earlier considered. Given this position, it is quite clear that cabotage restriction must be taken a notch further. In this regard, it is submitted that there is a growing necessity to enact legislation based upon a policy that will ensure that every government spending on travels, originates and terminates with an indigenous national air carrier. This policy can be modeled upon the United States of America legislation, Fly America Act, which primarily requires federal employees, consultants, contractors, and grantees, to use U.S. air carrier service for all air travel and cargo transportation services funded by the U.S. government. In this regard, Nigeria’s proposed model of the American legislation may be regarded to as the ‘Fly Nigeria Act, if and when enacted into law.

    Over the years, there has been clamour from various aviation stakeholders for the enactment of the ‘Fly Nigeria Act’, which would appreciably curb capital flight and compel foreign air carriers to partner with domestic air carriers, by way of code-sharing. Recently, a chat between correspondents from This Day and various aviation stakeholders, which was published on November 19, 2018, revealed that the Fly Nigeria Act is a legislation widely clamoured for by the stakeholders.

    At present, Olisa Agbakoba Legal, the sponsors of the Fly Nigeria Bill is engaged in positive talks with the Aviation Department of the Ministry of Transport, directed at promoting the Bill. The Bill is currently before the House of Assembly, although it appears that the legislature’s attention in respect of the Bill has been directed elsewhere. It can only be hoped that the Bill will be enacted sooner than later, as Nigerian continues to grapple with the economic effects of the imbalance of its bilateral air service agreements.

    Conclusion

    It is clear that there is a need for Nigeria to revisit its bilateral air service agreements, in light of the glaring imbalance arising from the agreements. It must, however, be stated that while the Fly Nigeria Act will be a welcome legislation for dealing with this imbalance, it is very crucial to note that the proposed legislation cannot of its own simply cure the maladies of Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements. For the proposed legislation to work, it is crucial that Nigeria’s domestic air carriers must be ready to fulfill the requirements that will enable them to operate the agreed international routes in Nigeria’s bilateral air service agreements. If the domestic air carriers fail to do this, the proposed legislation will inevitably be bedeviled with difficulties, as this would mean that there are no domestic air carriers to promote the success of the proposed legislation

  • How to heal structural imbalance, by author

    Northern leaders have been urged to retrace the altruistic values of integrity, trust, justice and fairness to heal the perceived structural imbalance in the region.

    Without this, the region may keep tethering the edge of retrogression, which would adversely affect national development.

    The author of a book, “Reconciliation in Northern Nigeria”, an expose on colonial instigation of policies of disparity fuelling structural imbalance in the north, Dr. Olufemi Oluniyi, spoke at the public presentation of the book at the Yaba College of Technology, Lagos.

    According to him, the colonial rule birthed and institutionalised cultural, religious and demographic inequality, which has continued to plague social stability.

    He said: “The first time the bill came to the British parliament about slave trade abolition, it was thrown out but those who believed it was wrong brought it back year after until they won. What we are doing is not a quick fix, but what we believe is sustainable. It is a fact that if the structure of a thing is not sustainable, the superstructure of it cannot stand.

    “If we want to create a society, it has to be on sustainable values of truth, trust, I-am-sorry, and other positive values. We have to start from values or we continue to wallow in setbacks. It may take a long time but once we are steady on the right track, it will yield results.”

    The book reviewer, Dr. Adewale Aderemi of the Department of Political Science, Lagos State University (LASU), said the book is a richly referenced composition that highlights the import of public apology in the resolution of deep interpersonal and public legacies founded in the colonial era.

    He, however, argued that ethnic diversity was not the country’s bane, but the use of malicious class inequality to establish a depravity gap.

  • Poverty, trade imbalance bane of AGOA, says Ngige

    Poverty, trade imbalance bane of AGOA, says Ngige

    Minister of Labour and Employment Dr Chris Ngige  has urged the United States (U.S.) to demonstrate stronger commitment to improving economic ties with African nations through balanced trade relations.

    He argued that the sudden stoppage of import of Nigerian crude oil by the U.S.  was antithetical to trade and economic cooperation upon which the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) was founded, saying that the action contributed to low foreign exchange receipts and economic recession in some African countries.

    The minister spoke at the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act Ministerial Roundtable taking place at the Department of Labour Building Washington D.C, US.

    Contributing to the theme: “Trade and worker rights: Inclusive economic growth in Africa through trade”,  Ngige said the capacity of Nigeria to tackle anti-labour practices, such as child labour, cheap labour and human trafficking was being hampered by dwindling resources, which the stoppage of the import of Nigerian crude by the US has accentuated; adding that poverty at the low income levels make the fight against anti-labour practices at the base difficult.

    He urged the US to assist African countries in the entire agricultural value chain of production, processing and preservation, as well as give increased educational assistance to farmers.

    He added: “Rescinding her decision on Nigerian crude is one of such steps that could be taken to buoy up our economy and regain enough capacity to protect workers rights and promote decent work in an inclusive economic growth.

    “The US must do more to assist junior partners by extending some labour projects and technical aide being executed in some African countries such Madagascar, Zambia and Kenya to Nigeria.”

  • ‘Nature can cure hormonal imbalance’

    ‘Nature can cure hormonal imbalance’

    dr-isaac-ayodeleokAs a woman do you experience migraine, insomnia, weight gain, hot flashes, mood swings, low libido, or even infertility without  an explanation?

    You may be having hormonal imbalance, according to Dr Isaac Ayodele, Founder, Diafa Ayodele Herbals.

    In an interview, he said nature could cure the disease.

    According to Ayodele, a Herbal Medicine practitioner and holder of Doctor of Science in Public Health from Atlantic International University, Honolulu in Hawaii, United States, though hormones could be diffucult to set straight, it is not so if one uses  natural means.

    He said hormones regulate cells and tissues in the body. The balance of hormones produced by the body is essential to good health and well-being, he added.

    According to him, hormones are incredible chemical messengers in the body that affect everything – the brain, heart, bones, muscles, skin, and reproductive organs. “Hormones are an essential part of the workings of every cell in the human body. They also work best when balanced. However, stress, poor food choices, inadequate sleep, synthetic hormones, and sedentary lifestyles can throw hormones out of balance and create real health problems. When your hormones are out of balance, it can contribute to migraines, insomnia, weight gain, hot flashes, mood swings, and low libido, to name a few. Over time, hormone imbalances could lead to rapid aging and increase risk for disease. When hormones are balanced, you could regain your sexual vitality, sleep better, have more energy and just feel better,” he explained.

    On how hormone imbalance impairs health, Ayodele said the healthy,  body manufactures  its hormones to keep it functioning. It becomes unbalanced when subjected to inadequate supplies of nutrients, inordinate stress and toxic influences. Balance is the most central aspect in a woman’s health.

    “We often assume that all illness is a product of injuries caused by germs or bodily harm. But it is not always true. When we live in a way out of balance with our nature or natural cycles, we accumulate certain patterns and build up imbalances that lead to stresses on body system that build on one another and, eventually, lead to illness. Balanced hormones are important for the cure and recovery from ill-health. In  conception, for instance, a balanced hormone is key to a successful natural conception and healthy pregnancy,” he said.

    According to Ayodele, raw carrots, which contain a unique fibre helps to detoxify excess estrogen from the body. Men and women can benefit from this practice, since estrogen dominance or too much estrogen in the body is a component of hormonal imbalances in both sexes, he said.

    He said: ‘’For instance, women who suffer from premenstrual syndrome (PMS) can naturally balance their hormones by eating only carrots diet for some days. This is very beneficial for women who suffer from premenstrual syndrome, including migraine. Carrots diet could lower the estrogen within a few days. This raw carrot diet is also appropriate for those suffering from epilepsy, insomnia and arthritis.’’

    He continued: ‘’Take control of your mental and stress levels. One of the factors that rob us of hormonal balance is lack of focus and negative thoughts, which lead to stress. If women who have stopped ovulation prematurely should reduce their stress and be more positive and focused on their goal of conception, they can ovulate again.

    ‘’Eat foods that promote natural fertility. These are foods that help to provide the right pH needed to make conception possible. The blood pH should be 7.2, which is slightly alkaline. Hence, choose food fertility diet with a focus on alkaline-forming foods. Therefore, if you want to function optimally, you should be doing your best to keep it this way daily. Typical acid-forming foods and drinks to avoid are: white sugar, wine, coffee, soft drinks/colas and wheat flour.’’

    Ayodele said the acid-forming foods may be a breeding ground for micro-organisms, such as yeast (candida), fungi, and negative bacteria and viruses to thrive in the body, leaving the body susceptible to various health-related issues, including the following: interference with enzymes and coenzymes, reducing the absorption of essential vitamins and minerals needed for hormonal balance, menstrual difficulties, urinary tract infections, impotence, chronic pelvic pain and the wrong pH for sperm to survive.’’

    He cited nutritionists who advocate that one should try to achieve a diet that consists of 60 percent alkaline-forming foods, and 40 percent acid-forming foods. ‘’But still keep healthy basics in mind when choosing your acid-forming foods. Don’t be afraid of choosing acid-forming foods either, such as lean, organic animal protein as these are vital for hormone building, just be sure to top up the rest of your plate with plenty of alkaline-forming foods, such as organic, dark leafy vegetables, chickpeas, cucumbers, sprouts, avocados, quinoa, and buckwheat.

    ‘’Eat Liver. Liver is reputed to be the ideal super food to balance hormones. It is the most nutrient-dense food on the planet. Most importantly, liver provides the highest source of vitamin A, one of the most valuable vitamins to balance hormones. Vitamin A not only improves thyroid function, it also improves liver health so we can synthesise and detoxify hormones well.

    ‘’Walking is vital. Of all exercises, walking stands out to balance hormones. Chronic cardio exercises, such as jogging, running, spinning classes and even cross fit places undue stress on the body. Prolonged cardio exercises create free radical damage and spikes stress hormones. Chronic cardio exercises also impair balanced hormones; hence, those with adrenal fatigue should avoid cardio exercises for one month.

    ‘’Walking, in nature, on the other hand, provides a restorative yet invigorating exercise ideal for balancing hormones. As a matter of fact, walking has been shown to reduce cortisol levels (a stress hormone) and boost the immune system. High cortisol levels create inflammation and perpetuate hormonal imbalance, so reducing cortisol is very helpful. It also stimulates the lymphatic system to help flush toxins from the body and works the muscles without undue stress on the body.

    Ayodele said one should avoid hormonal birth control pills but take egg yolks. “The pill and other forms of hormonal birth control create a cascade of hormonal imbalance in the body by creating nutritional deficiencies and disrupting gut bacteria. On the contrary, we have been throwing egg yolks down the drain due to cholesterol-paranoia, but it turns out that the yolk provides the most valuable nutrition,” he explained.

    He said egg yolk contains Vitamin A to balance hormones and one couldn’t get it from vegetables. It also contains Vitamin D, which works more like a steroid hormone in the body, so it is vital to balanced hormones to receive enough of this fat-soluble vitamin.  Egg yolk has Selenium, which is necessary for the conversion of thyroid hormones from the inactive form to the active form. Egg yolks are nature’s thyroid support supplement, due to the selenium content, vitamin content and healthful fats. (About 40 percent of the selenium is found in the white and 60 percent is in the yolk.)

    Ayodele said though it sounds funny, a long hug of one’s loved ones could stop hormonal imbalance.

    Quoting a neuro economist, Paul Zak, Ayodele said: “A 20-second hug with a romantic partner has been shown to spike oxytoxcin, the ‘Happiness Hormone’.”

  • Nigeria: Political power imbalance:

    Nigeria: Political power imbalance:

    …Continued from yesterday.

    The bane and chain down of Nigeria’s progress and development – •Excerpts from a 261-page book by Sir Olaniwun Ajayi

    The bane and chain down of Nigeria’s progress and developmentThe Yorubas have undoubtedly occupied this homeland for many centuries. When the Portuguese arrived on the coast in the 15th century, their political organisation into a number of major and minor states had already been evolved, and may well have been in existence for several hundred years, as an examination of their king-lists and other oral data suggest. Their language, despite its many dialects, provides the main evidence of a common origin and cultural heritage…

    In this connection, it is intriguing to observe the views of Lord Lugard in his early days as High Commissioner for Northern Nigeria. On page 25 paragraph 36, which formed part of his 1902 Annual Report on Northern Nigeria to both Houses of Parliament through the Colonial Office, in part wrote thus: “…The case of these alien conquerors (the Fulani) is wholly different from that of ancient chiefs ruling over people of their own race for long centuries past, as I believe in the case, for instance, with the Yoruba chiefs of Lagos, who are of the same race with their subjects, and have held their position for centuries with well – established system of communal land tenure…”

    Furthermore, Lord Lugard’s biographer, Margery Perham said; “…The Yorubas, at least for centuries before British annexation, had taken to living in towns, and were indeed the most urban -minded of all African peoples, though it must be remembered that the people thus concentrated were still mainly farmers…” 55

    We may add yet another view regarding the state of development even before the advent of Europeans, particularly the British. That is the view of the great scholar and author, James S. Coleman, who stated that:

    “The Yoruba people may rightly claim to be the largest cultural aggregation in West Africa with a history of political unity and a common historical tradition… Additional distinguishing feature of the Yoruba are of significance. One is the comparative large-scale political organisation which existed before the British intrusion…. The whole Yoruba system was marked by check and counter-check:” and the superstructure was essentially that of a constitutional monarchy. 56

    Finally, the prudence or advisability of corralling the manifest and intellectual views of experts and eminent persons will be amply met by adding the considered statement of a former Governor-General, Sir Arthur Richards, (later Lord Milverton) as recorded in his memoir by his biographer, Richard Peel. He stated, among other things, of the Yoruba:

    “…The people of Western Province had, like the North, a more developed system of native administration and, in addition, an authoritarian, kingly rule handed down for centuries and therefore in many ways more bred in the bone.”57

     

    Chapter 3

    The Igbo Nation

     

    The origin of Igbo people would appear to be a great conjecture as various writers hold different views with respect to where the Igbo originated. For example, M.D.W. Jeffreys held the view that the Igbo originated from Egypt. Whereas some Igbo writers, claimed that the lgbo were Hebrew or Egyptian, stating that the origin of Aro was the Nile Valley. 58

    Perhaps for the purpose of this book, it will be sufficient to limit our research into the origin of the Igbo people to the fact that the Igbo have been in their present settlement for very many centuries. This view is supported by the evidence produced by the research report of Professor D.D. Hartle’s test excavation in the University of Nigeria Nsukka Agricultural farm, which produced evidence of human settlement, dating back to 2555 BC. The evidence went further to state that the materials recovered from the excavation, like ‘unfired clay vessels’ were like the unfired articles being used in Nsukka. We can then infer from the excavation evidence that the people of Nsukka are the descendant of the people occupying the area from time immemorial. The further inference from that hypothesis is that Nri-Awka-Orlu sector would appear to be the earliest centre from which Igbo waves of migration started. This view is confirmed by Talbot and Mulhall in their book – The Physical Anthropology of Southern Nigeria, Page 4. They said:

    “The Ibo have no tradition from elsewhere and appear to have settled in the thickly populated parts of Nri-Awka and Isu-Ama areas for a very long period and to have spread from there.”

    There is no record that the Igbo had a common ancestor. However, there were cases of various units of villages where people got together and made arrangement, whereby they looked upon themselves as brothers. Such villages or groups could unite for a purpose like forming themselves into constituency or community.

    Geographically, substantial part of south-eastern Nigeria, which is the geopolitical region of Igbo people, is covered by dense forest and challenged by erosion.

    Sir Alan Burns, the author of History of Nigeria (7th Revised Edition) wrote on Page 59 of his book:

    “…At the time that Lord Lugard wrote the most important of these was the large lbo tribe. Among these people there was no highly recognised form of government and little tribal cohesion; practically every village was independent, and so great was the isolation of each small community that the inhabitants of neighbouring villages often speak in entirely different dialects…”

    Margery Perham, writing on Lord Lugard in 1960 said:

    Early in 1915, for example, he went on tour in the south-east, driving the first train along the sixteen miles of rail, between Port Harcourt and Imo River. From there he went north into the heart of the densely populated lbo country, visiting the coal field and calling at the headquarters of districts. He was greeted everywhere by the forest people, the women giving him the almost universal greeting of female Africa of shrill “lululuing” (many of the women of all ages were absolutely nude and Ah you, quite shocked, turned his back on them). Coal and railway-cutting focused his attention more upon geology than humanity. But he had an eye for the natural beauty of Enugu, the future Eastern capital, which was then almost virgin bush.

    Political organisation, a remarkable chieftaincy system and a well established urbanisation which were the hallmarks of Yoruba nation before the British came were non – existent in lgbo nation. That state of development in the south-east (Igboland) was a problem to Lugard with particular regard to indirect rule.

    In 1900, Lord Lugard, as he later became, inaugurated the Protectorate in northern Nigeria which was later divided into Provinces. In the capital of each province, was a senior British official, known as Resident. Government policy was to the effect that the African rulers, mostly Emirs and their council and courts, were running the administration. This was the system later known as Indirect Rule.

    In this regard, Lugard had a lot of problems in the South – east. There was no organisation nor chiefs as were in the northern protectorate. Indeed, Margery Perham made an indecent reference to the lgbo as:

    “Coastal group in the region and a people of beastly living, without a god, laws, religion or commonwealth… Lugard could appreciate the formidable fact of their social fragmentation but are we then to assume that the attempt to adapt the fundamental principle of Indirect Rule to these intractable human conditions…”

    However, because there were no rulers and chiefs in Igboland, the British government had to appoint chiefs by warrant in order to operate the Indirect Rule.

    As to what remains of the history of Igbo people is not of any historical importance and relevance, it will be expedient to close up here and go to the history of Hausa/ Fulani.

     

    Chapter 4

    Hausa/ Fulani

     

    Unlike the case of the Yoruba and somewhat similar to the case of the Igbo, there is, hitherto, no known origin of the Hausa people. All we know is that the Hausa speaking people are, to a great extent, of Nigeria origin. It would appear however, that as there are not many who could be identified as Hausa, those who speak the language are very many throughout the northern half of Africa, including Mecca.

    Despite paucity of records, it is recognised that Kano, Zaria, Daura, Gobir, Katsina, Rano and Zamfara, were the original seven states of the Hausa in Nigeria.

    With respect to religion, the people called Hausa would probably be pagans before the advent of the Islamic religion which came into Hausa community about thirteenth century. Thus, Muhammadanism spread quickly, making rapid progress among the people. The new religion affected both the religious and social life of the Hausa people. With the passage of time, a form of government developed among them. Each state had its king and judicial system which administered the law. In other words, a structure of an organised community was already present among them.

    Since the Hausa could not claim a common origin or ancestor like Oduduwa for the Yoruba, each state was independent of the others. With time this state of separateness or individualism gave room for an engendered jealousy and disaffection which ultimately brought about internecine wars. Thus, for example, Zaria waged war against the Hausa and conquered the Hausa countries to the south and brought down Bauchi, just as Gobir fought all nomad tribes of the northern desert. Kano fought Borno without successes. But Bornu fought successfully Hausaland, while Askia, the King of Sonhay conquered Katsina and Kano and made them provinces of his empire.

    With the growing power of the Hausa, a peace immigration into the country of a people called Fulani took place. Where they came from, nobody knew. A school of thought said they came from India. Some others opined that they were Jews, others argued that they were Malayan or Phoenician.

    The generally accepted view however, was that they came from upper Egypt and moved westwards to the Atlantic Coast where most of them settled and some years later, some of them moved in the direction of Nigeria around the thirteenth century. They mingled with the Hausa and intermarried with them and adopted Muhammadan religion. In due course, their superior intelligence placed them in position of importance and power.

    For many years however, the Fulani remained a subject race in Hausaland. However, in 1804, Othman dan Fodio, a Fulani Sheikh, rose among the Fulani group. Othman dan Fodio ran into conflict with the King of Gobir whom, with his Fulani followers, he defeated in a decisive battle. Consequently, following the defeat of Gobir and his followers, Othman dan Fodio became and recognised as the Sarkin Musulmi. His followers, the Fulani, sought and obtained his approval to wage war and conquer the Hausa among whom they had been living on sufferance.

    The holy war began and Othman dan Fodio encouraged and boldened his followers to wage war in the name of Allah and His Prophet against pagans and unbelievers and those who appeared to them to be lukewarm. Not only were they conquered, their property was also taken as spoil.

    In 1808, Borno, a Mohammadan country, was attacked by Othman’s fanatical followers, although not all the followers of Othman were Fulani. In truth, this was the Jihad which the natives in the country saw as preservation of their religion and so supported it. The Jihad was not a full success but it was at such a stage that Othman could hand over the country to his brother called Abdullahi and his son, Bello. Before he died in 1817, Othman had divided the country between his brother, Abdullahi, who made himself Gando, and Bello to be in charge of Sokoto, and recognised as Sarkin Musulumi.

    Bello had a turbulent reign as he had to contend with constant warfare against the tribes who would not embrace Fulani rule.

    A bit of peace came to Bello towards the closing years of his reign. The supporters and their descendants firmly owed allegiance to Sokoto, the seat of Bello. Sokoto became an empire which gradually included the emirates of Adamawa, Gombe, Hadeija, Kano, Katsina, Daura, Katagun, Bauchi, and Zaria. His troubled reign notwithstanding, Bello made for himself, time to study. He in time, became an author of several works on history, geography and theology.

    It is intriguing to observe Bello, who was a learned person ordered that all the Hausa records in his domain should be destroyed. They were in fact, destroyed. He died in 1837. His brother, Abubakar Atiku, succeeded him.

     

    Chapter 5

    Fate and future of Nigeria’s minorities

     

    Towards the latter part of 1943, O.G.R. Williams, the head of the West African Department of Colonial Office, took the initiative of writing a memorandum on ‘Constitutional development in West Africa.