Category: Arts & Life

Money has become a modern means of exchange in every country. In today’s world, there is practically nothing that one could get done without money not only as a means of exchange but as an item which one must have enough to meet individual’s needs.

Historically, money is not as old as man. This is because the development of modern day currency has been a gradual process.

Today, every nation of the world has her own currency clearly different from that of others. However before the advent of modern day currency, man has been involved in exchange of goods and services with one another.

 

History of Barter System

What is barter system

 

Before the coinage era, the means of exchange was trade by barter. Barter system can be traced back to 6000BC. It was introduced by the tribes of Mesopotamia and spread to other parts of the world. It is said to be in use for centuries throughout the world. It has been in existence before the advent of the monetary system.

Barter system is an old age system adopted by people living in the same locality to exchange their goods and services. It is the system of exchanging what you have for what you need. It can be between an individual and the gods they worshipped. Equally between friends and relations. In the case of men and gods, they offered properties in order to appreciate the gods for longevity, good health, success in hunting, farming, fertility and so on. While between individuals, friends and relations exchange were carried out regardless of the value of the item, what was important is the spirit of exchange.

Despite all these, barter system had its challenges, which include

• No acceptable rate of exchange
• Problem of Transportation
• Problem of durability
• Divisibility of some of the materials/items involved. This challenges give arise to pre-coinage currencies.

Nigeria due to the fact that she is made up of many ethnic groups and the ecological factors obtained in the different parts of the country made her to have no rival with any African country in terms of the diverse pre-coinage currencies that were used, throughout the country.

Her trade contact with the Arabs coming from the North and the Europeans coming from the South by sea is another reason for the diverse currencies.

Currency according to the oxford English Dictionary is defined as “that which is current as a medium of exchange” meaning object that is currently accepted by the people and and use as a medium of exchange and which command value.

The pre-coinage currencies is divided into two

1. a) Local/Indigenous currency items- used for internal trade, they include iron, animals, salt, feathers, red berries seed, farm products, textiles, beads and stick tally.
2. b) Imported/Non indigenous currency items: – cowries shells, manilas, copper bars/brass rods and wires, iron bar, gin and tobacco.

Local/indigenous currency items

 

1. Iron: Different types of iron with different shapes, were used in different parts of Nigeria. They include
2. The ‘Y‘ shaped iron bar:This iron bar was known as Ogoja penny was used as currency in Ogoja in Cross River State. In the same area, among the Nkum, it is known as Efufy and among the Akuju as “Iya Yaw”. The Tiv of Benue State called theirs Yakaro while at Afikpo (Ebonyi State) it is called erichia.
3. Hoe: This was common in the Northern part of the country were hoe is used for farming. The Jukuns in the present day Taraba State called it “akika” while the Anago people of Plateau State and the vokkude people in Adamawa province used their hoe currencies for payment of bride price.
4. Neddle money: it was used among the Igbos living between Awka and Enugu and they had different names for it. The names are aiyu, ozala and umumu. They are worth 1/10th of a penny.

Today, they are used as part of the items for offerings to the gods.

2) Animals (cattle, horse, goats): Cattle as a currency was mainly used among the Fulani’s, where a man’s wealth is determined by the numbers of heads of cattle he has. According to Baikie, a horse could buy slaves. Horses and saddles were used as currency while in Biu area horses and goats were used in paying taxes.

3) Salt: We had the indigenous type of salt and the imported type which was bought into Southern Nigeria by almost every European trader. They were used side by side as currency.

They were used as currency in Bornu State and Bonny in River State. It was still in use till about Forty years ago for payment of bride price in Bornu. The salt comes in cones shape and the price was determined by the distance of the market to the source of the salt or salt factory.

According to Baikie, in Aboh Enugu State in 1856, 10 – 12 bags of salt could buy a stout male slave while 8 – 10 would buy a young female.

4) Feathers: Feather currency was used among the people of Wamba Division in Gongola which is the Present day Adamawa State. The feather was that of the plantain eater (Muso phaga Violacea) five of these feathers were worth a chicken or one penny towards the end of the 1930s.

Red Berries Seeds: These seeds (with red and black colour) were very much in demand in Nigeria. Their importance compete with that of cowrie shells because they were more decorative than the cowrie shell. They were exchange at the rate of 100 to a penny, in the 19th century. The Igala people used them in decorating their wooden helmet mask called oju egu used in the royal ancestral cult.

5) Farm Product: Variety of farm products were used in trade by barter but some were used as currencies.

Among the Wukari, some 50 years ago a Calabash full of corn (Agi) was worth one large manila. Yams were used as currency among the Umon people of Ogoja in Cross River State. “According to Captain Allen 1841, 10 yams was worth a child along River Niger in 1841. Equally palm oil and kernels were very popular as currency in the Delta area towards the end of the 19th century.

According to Talbot, dried fish in Delta area were used as currency in 1920.

6) Textile: Before the advent of imported textiles, local textiles of various range including mats that were locally woven were used. With the introduction of the non-indigenous textile/cloth both were used as currencies side by side.

Langtang cloth was used by Mumuye people for payment of bride price until 1940’s.

The Kabadir and the toko of the Kaltungo people of Bauchi woven by men were used in the payment of bride price. One Kabadir was equal to five hoes.

In Benin (Edo State) Loin wrapper known as pawn or pagne worth three pence in 1789 was use as currency.

In Gwato (Ughoton) Edo State, a male slave cost about 100 pawns while a female 90. It later became a standard of value.

The most popular of the foreign currency was the Manchester cloth prints which came in 10yds and a bundle worth six shillings in Calabar.

The Madras and George cloth were used as currencies among the Kalabari (Rivers State). George is still valued by the Ibos and Ijaws. It is today incomplete for a woman not to have the material among the collections of clothes in her wardrobe and it has spread to other areas.

Mats: They were also important, particularly the large Bornu mats. Among the Yako in 1951, raffia bundles was a constituent of bride price payable until 1930s.

8) Beads: Local beads were used before the introduction of imported beads called trade beads.

The local beads include Segi beads from Ife in Osun State, glass beads from Kano State and Bida in Niger State respectively while the Vere of Adamawa province was noted for their brass beads.

They were used as currencies, although largely as ornaments until their importance were reduced as a result of massive importation of trade beads.

9) Stick Tally: This was common among the Mumuye of the former Gongola province.

Several sticks of shorts length were tied together to form a unit which could buy a goat while sticks were also woven together in the manner of mat and used in payment for a bride.

 

Non – indigenous currency items

 

Cowrie Shells:- It is the most widely known pre-coinage currencies. They are found in the waters of the India and Pacific Ocean. In Nigeria two species were used as currency. The larger cowries called “Cypraea annulus” were preferred in the west of the Niger while the smaller type called “Cypraea moneta” was in voque in east of the Niger. Large quantities of cowries were imported in Nigeria, for instance in 1869 about 3,330 tonnes were imported.

Cowrie among the Fulani is called sedere, the Yoruba, Owoeyo, the Bini, Iguo while the Igbos the smaller one is called Ayolo and the large one Okpokpo or Nwefe.

 

In Fulani a slave would be bought with 100,000 cowries while a horse is between 50,000 and 1,200,000 cowries. In Plateau among Biroms a leather cup called wareng full of cowries could obtain a wife or a slave. Prof Nwankwo recorded that as late as 1940, sixty shell equal half a penny while 120 shells is worth a penny. It was also used for settlement of bride price, 12 men carries the cowries to the bride’s parents. It was also used in the payment of import duties on salt, and kolanuts.

King Dosumu ceded the sovereignty of Lagos to the British government in 1861 for 1,200 bags of cowries which is equivalent of about N2,000.

 

In 1923, cowrie shell importation was out lawed. However, It was still in use up to 1940.

 

2)         Manillas:- It was first introduced into Benin from where it spread to old and new Calabar. It was manufactured in Birmingham England solely for West Africa trade. Nine different kinds of manilas existed with different names according to the area of useage. For example the Jaja Manillas used in Opobo in Rivers State, nkob kob manillas was used among the Efik and Ibibio of Cross River and Akwa Ibom State respectively while Ejema among the Bende in Abia State.

 

There was the king’s, queen and prince Manillas they were more of a status symbols and a store of value than currency. A king’s Manillas was worth about 100 smaller manillas queen’s was equal to 75 while Prince manilas was equal to 50 smaller ones.

 

In Calabar, they were used in the hinterland markets to buy slaves and palm oil, these enrich the chiefs and the nobleman.

By 1911, they ceased to be a legal tender but was still used alongside with coins introduced in 1912 by West African Currency Board.

 

In 1948, the Eastern region House of Assembly out law the used. Campaign was launched to redeem all existing Manillas. This exercise cost the government E436, 500 to redeem about 33½ Million Manillas but some are still be found in private hands to this day.

 

(3)        Copper bars/brass Rods and wires:-  copper bars/brass rod are also called Calabar bars. They are round in cross section. Brass rods are called Okpoho okuk. They are cut into three equal parts and then twisted/plaited together to form an arm ring and were used as currency. Example: six iron knives = one bar. A male slave was bought for 38 copper bars and a female slightly less. One copper bar was worth one shilling in old Calabar 1856.

 

Brass rods:- were equally used in Bornu and Bonny, uptill the 20th Century. it was called “roti” in Bornu and in Igbo Land it was known as Ude.

 

Brass Wire:- Introduced into Calabar by captain Cheetem and was called cheetem after its inventor by the Europeans while the Calabar called it Sitim. They were used mainly in Cross River State. They were exchanged at 18 to a bar.

 

Iron Bars:- The imported iron bar was not a common currency but an acceptable standard unit of value for all products and manufactured goods. It value fluctuated through the years, in 1790 a bar was worth 40 manillas while in the 19th century. One iron bar could buy a goat.

 

4)         GIN:-was also used as currency. It can easily be divided into smaller units. A case contained twelve bottles and each bottle was worth a shilling. Its importation was restricted and the yearly increase in the custom duties made the value of gin to appreciate regularly. Bottles of gin can pass through several hands without being open, this made it to be use as a store of value.

 

In 1905 a crate of gin was worth 40 coppers rod or (12 shillings) in Cross River. It went up to 60 rods or (15 shillings). In 1914 during the outbreak of the First World War, gin was scarce and wealth was measured by the number of gin bottles or crates one possessed.

 

It was one of the essential items needed in the payment of bride price. The square faced bottles being the most popular. Long after colonial currency was introduced the people of Yenegoa still insist on their bride price being settled in gin.

 

5)         Tobacco:- The usage of tobacco as currency was not extensive probably because it was easily consumable. However it was used as currency among the Kagoro people of Southern Zaria and Gombe division.

 

In Eastern Nigeria, it was used for payment of bride price among the people of Owerri in present day Imo State as late as 1937.

 

Modern Day Currency

 

Modern day currency came as an indigenous introduction into modern trade as it eliminated the burden of other means of exchange such as iron, cowries, gin, textiles etc that have been discussed above and used as means of exchange during the pre-coinage era. The use of these items needless to say were rather limited to a particular area, which most of them are cumbersome, most lack the distinctive characteristic of modern day means of exchange (money) and the value of these items keep fluctuating as a result of the introduction of colonial currency by the European traders.

 

This now create a need for a more uniform and acceptable means of exchange. With the introduction of coin and paper money in 1912 by the West African Currency Board. Nigeria introduced hers in 1959 “still using the British pounds, shillings and penny” but in 1973, it adopted a national currency in decimal form (naira and kobo) which is today been generally accepted and used as currency and as a medium of exchange.

 

The monetary system operated the world over today has completely eliminated all the challenges associated with pre-coinage era.

 

All the nations of the world now have their individual currencies with different denomination and it is easy to identify each nation with its own currency. This system has brought the world closer in modern system of trade and exchange.

 

Although pre-coinage currencies are no longer used as a means of exchange, it is of importance to note that they are being kept in the museums for posterity and also in the Banks, cowries shells are found in their possession as a reminder of one of the most popular means of exchange during the pre-coinage era.

 

Most of items are still being used in our day to day activities, so each time you come across any of these objects just take a second look because they have been very valuable part of our monetary history in Nigeria, Africa and even across the world.

 

Ekwunazor is of the National Museum, Onikan, Lagos.

Infertility simply means the inability of a man or woman to have or produce the cells that are essential for the conception and delivery of a child.

The issue of infertility has been in existence since time immemorial. We can see that in biblical days, women like Sarah, Hannah and Rebecca to mention but a few were infertile. Due to this reason, they called upon the highest power to heal them and bless them with children which he did.

In the traditional Nigerian society, fertility is believed to be spiritual i.e. the gods are assigned the responsibility for human, crop and animal fertility. These gods are usually represented in carved wooden figures, stones, rivers, shrines etc It is also believed that our ancestors are still living within us and presiding over the affairs of their loved ones and entire community, so in times need i.e. people who are unable to reproduce, consult and appease the ancestors to bless them with children.

Afo is a group of people who live in the low plains of Nasarawa State. These people are into agriculture and rearing of livestock as a means of livelihood. Like some people in different parts of the world, they were also faced with the issue of infertility among their women. Infertility, as is common in most parts of Africa, is unacceptable as the women will not be allowed to participate in some communal festivity/occasions and will be disregarded by the community because it is believed that the women or her family had sinned against the ancestors. Her husband will also be treated with contempt and not assigned important roles in the society. As a result of this, women sought the help of their ancestors to help them out of their predicament and in this case Afo fertility figure

Afo fertility figures are mythical female ancestors of the tribe. They are wooden objects which are carved out as mother and child or children and is usually in a seated position. The mother is depicted with big / elongated breast, which is given suck to a child.

Sometimes the object is seen carrying another child on her back. This depicts fruitfulness i.e. the woman will be blessed with many children. The figure also has linear scarifications on the face, hands, burst and back which is the tribal mark of the people. The seated position depicts prestige and honour for the woman as any woman in the community who is blessed with children is highly respected.

These objects are kept in shrines and consulted through the help of a chief priest who makes sacrifices on behalf of the woman and then gives her a solution which could be a concoction to drink or rituals to perform. After some time, the woman will conceive and give birth to a child or children who will be given names to honour the ancestors (Afo).

It is believed that this figure is brought out to the village square once a year during the Aya festivals where men pray for increased fertility in the lives of their wives and also make gift offerings of money and food to the ancestors.

As stated earlier, the issue of infertility has been in existence since time immemorial and cuts across various tribes and cultures. Based on this, different cultures have adopted various means of addressing this through the help of the ancestors.

The deity of Yoruba land is believed by the devotees to give children to the infertile. Thus, there’s yearly festival celebrated in Osogbo, Osun State  where women from various walks of life come to seek children by sacrificing and drinking the Seleru water. The emblem of the Osun cult is the Blue Yoruba Segi Beads worn by the devotees.

This is a full figure headdress worn in the Ogbom dance, which is known among many regions in eastern Nigeria.

Ala is the earth goddess who plays a very important role in human and agricultural increase. The Ogbom head dress is used during a dance in honor of Ala. The problem of infertility is not peculiar to Nigerian people alone but the whole world, but each society has its own way of addressing the issue.

 

• Okoh is of the National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Abuja.